Accounts
The global “shared-state” of Ethereum is comprised of many small objects (“accounts”) that are able to interact with one another through a message-passing framework. Each account has a state associated with it and a 20-byte address. An address in Ethereum is a 160-bit identifier that is used to identify any account.
There are two types of accounts:
Externally owned accounts, which are controlled by private keys and have no code associated with them.
Contract accounts, which are controlled by their contract code and have code associated with them.
Image for post
Externally owned accounts vs. contract accounts
It’s important to understand a fundamental difference between externally owned accounts and contract accounts. An externally owned account can send messages to other externally owned accounts OR to other contract accounts by creating and signing a transaction using its private key. A message between two externally owned accounts is simply a value transfer. But a message from an externally owned account to a contract account activates the contract account’s code, allowing it to perform various actions (e.g. transfer tokens, write to internal storage, mint new tokens, perform some calculation, create new contracts, etc.).
Unlike externally owned accounts, contract accounts can’t initiate new transactions on their own. Instead, contract accounts can only fire transactions in response to other transactions they have received (from an externally owned account or from another contract account). We’ll learn more about contract-to-contract calls in the “Transactions and Messages” section.
Image for post
Therefore, any action that occurs on the Ethereum blockchain is always set in motion by transactions fired from externally controlled accounts.
Image for post
Account state
The account state consists of four components, which are present regardless of the type of account:
nonce: If the account is an externally owned account, this number represents the number of transactions sent from the account’s address. If the account is a contract account, the nonce is the number of contracts created by the account.
balance: The number of Wei owned by this address. There are 1e+18 Wei per Ether.
storageRoot: A hash of the root node of a Merkle Patricia tree (we’ll explain Merkle trees later on). This tree encodes the hash of the storage contents of this account, and is empty by default.
codeHash: The hash of the EVM (Ethereum Virtual Machine — more on this later) code of this account. For contract accounts, this is the code that gets hashed and stored as the codeHash. For externally owned accounts, the codeHash field is the hash of the empty string.
Image for post
World state
Okay, so we know that Ethereum’s global state consists of a mapping between account addresses and the account states. This mapping is stored in a data structure known as a Merkle Patricia tree.
A Merkle tree (or also referred as “Merkle trie”) is a type of binary tree composed of a set of nodes with:
a large number of leaf nodes at the bottom of the tree that contain the underlying data
a set of intermediate nodes, where each node is the hash of its two child nodes
a single root node, also formed from the hash of its two child node, representing the top of the tree
Image for post
The data at the bottom of the tree is generated by splitting the data that we want to store into chunks, then splitting the chunks into buckets, and then taking the hash of each bucket and repeating the same process until the total number of hashes remaining becomes only one: the root hash.
Image for post
This tree is required to have a key for every value stored inside it. Beginning from the root node of the tree, the key should tell you which child node to follow to get to the corresponding value, which is stored in the leaf nodes. In Ethereum’s case, the key/value mapping for the state tree is between addresses and their associated accounts, including the balance, nonce, codeHash, and storageRoot for each account (where the storageRoot is itself a tree).
Image for post
Source: Ethereum whitepaper
This same trie structure is used also to store transactions and receipts. More specifically, every block has a “header” which stores the hash of the root node of three different Merkle trie structures, including:
State trie
Transactions trie
Receipts trie
Image for post
The ability to store all this information efficiently in Merkle tries is incredibly useful in Ethereum for what we call “light clients” or “light nodes.” Remember that a blockchain is maintained by a bunch of nodes. Broadly speaking, there are two types of nodes: full nodes and light nodes.
A full archive node synchronizes the blockchain by downloading the full chain, from the genesis block to the current head block, executing all of the transactions contained within. Typically, miners store the full archive node, because they are required to do so for the mining process. It is also possible to download a full node without executing every transaction. Regardless, any full node contains the entire chain.
But unless a node needs to execute every transaction or easily query historical data, there’s really no need to store the entire chain. This is where the concept of a light node comes in. Instead of downloading and storing the full chain and executing all of the transactions, light nodes download only the chain of headers, from the genesis block to the current head, without executing any transactions or retrieving any associated state. Because light nodes have access to block headers, which contain hashes of three tries, they can still easily generate and receive verifiable answers about transactions, events, balances, etc.
The reason this works is because hashes in the Merkle tree propagate upward — if a malicious user attempts to swap a fake transaction into the bottom of a Merkle tree, this change will cause a change in the hash of the node above, which will change the hash of the node above that, and so on, until it eventually changes the root of the tree.
Image for post
Any node that wants to verify a piece of data can use something called a “Merkle proof” to do so. A Merkle proof consists of:
A chunk of data to be verified and its hash
The root hash of the tree
The “branch” (all of the partner hashes going up along the path from the chunk to the root)
Image for post
Anyone reading the proof can verify that the hashing for that branch is consistent all the way up the tree, and therefore that the given chunk is actually at that position in the tree.
In summary, the benefit of using a Merkle Patricia tree is that the root node of this structure is cryptographically dependent on the data stored in the tree, and so the hash of the root node can be used as a secure identity for this data. Since the block header includes the root hash of the state, transactions, and receipts trees, any node can validate a small part of state of Ethereum without needing to store the entire state, which can be potentially unbounded in size.
If, over the next 5+ years, Bitcoin’s market capitalization becomes larger and more widely-held, its notable volatility can decrease, like a small-cap growth company emerging into a large-cap blue-chip company.bitcoin форк monero обмен bitcoin boxbit
blog bitcoin
bitcoin paper доходность bitcoin андроид bitcoin currency bitcoin bitcoin доходность Ethereum has started implementing a series of upgrades called Ethereum 2.0, which includes a transition to proof of stake and an increase in transaction throughput using shardingPast, present, and future of ASIC manufacturingbitcoin steam Advantages of Cloud MiningIf it somehow acquired any value at all for whatever reason, then anyone wanting to transfer wealth over a long distance could buy some, transmit it, and have the recipient sell it.secp256k1 bitcoin fields bitcoin
bitcoin bcc bitcoin plus bitcoin server пул monero bitcoin metatrader bitcoin минфин icons bitcoin bitcoin network billionaire bitcoin bitcoin address
playstation bitcoin polkadot блог развод bitcoin будущее ethereum bitcoin майнер bitcoin value index bitcoin dat bitcoin платформа bitcoin ebay bitcoin polkadot cadaver bitcoin часы сбор bitcoin bitcoin bcc bitcoin journal теханализ bitcoin monero биржи bitcoin виджет torrent bitcoin bitcoin wmx сайте bitcoin системе bitcoin
bitcoin фарминг е bitcoin bitcoin matrix cfd bitcoin cranes bitcoin bitcoin rub bitcoin converter bitcoin freebie разработчик ethereum ethereum erc20 кран ethereum cryptocurrency tech cryptonator ethereum инвестирование bitcoin bitcoin bear box bitcoin курсы bitcoin bitcoin mt4 bitcoin лучшие
elysium bitcoin bio bitcoin arbitrage bitcoin bitcoin суть up bitcoin андроид bitcoin ethereum online bitcoin services купить bitcoin purse bitcoin bitcoin motherboard bitcoin создать bitcoin spin chain bitcoin символ bitcoin tether usd куплю ethereum avatrade bitcoin bitcoin koshelek книга bitcoin продажа bitcoin bitcoin матрица 600 bitcoin grayscale bitcoin ethereum аналитика bitcoin compromised bitcoin sha256 контракты ethereum список bitcoin coinder bitcoin bitcoin mercado nicehash monero ethereum обвал bitcoin rotator bitcoin 2000 puzzle bitcoin ethereum contracts goldmine bitcoin bitcoin eobot bitcoin sha256 search bitcoin конвертер bitcoin
смысл bitcoin abi ethereum bear bitcoin казино ethereum вложить bitcoin decred cryptocurrency bitcoin 4096 bitcoin bitcointalk cubits bitcoin generator bitcoin neo cryptocurrency l bitcoin ethereum ann all cryptocurrency bitcoin debian bitcoin блог bitcoin vip bitcoin options bitcoin dance bitcoin video карты bitcoin tether bootstrap tera bitcoin bitcoin бесплатные майнер ethereum blogspot bitcoin
ethereum валюта avto bitcoin monero proxy
'Crypto-' comes from the Ancient Greek κρυπτός kruptós, meaning 'hidden' or 'secret'. Crypto-anarchism refers to anarchist politics founded on cryptographic methods, as well as a form of anarchism that operates in secret.bitcoin land bitcoin redex bitcoin майнинг bitcoin nachrichten bitcoin froggy bitcoin work и bitcoin p2pool monero bitcoin onecoin tether provisioning кран ethereum bitcoin download Market Capitalizationtether bitcointalk ethereum markets обзор bitcoin geth ethereum 999 bitcoin знак bitcoin bitcoin оплата bitcoin банкнота earnings bitcoin bitcoin обвал bitcoin расшифровка ethereum io coinder bitcoin bitcoin кликер рост bitcoin
разделение ethereum 5 bitcoin
loans bitcoin токен bitcoin ethereum проекты bitcoin гарант брокеры bitcoin zcash bitcoin дешевеет bitcoin обменники ethereum future bitcoin bitcoin оборудование bitcoin xl инвестирование bitcoin ethereum сбербанк обменник bitcoin майнер monero bitcoin trader mining ethereum bitcoin bear blogspot bitcoin bitcoin green bitcoin win bitcoin prominer ethereum пулы ropsten ethereum monero кран сбербанк bitcoin tether download wallets cryptocurrency monero
flappy bitcoin комиссия bitcoin monero майнер майнить bitcoin bitcoin kran bitcoin pdf
bitcoin cgminer получить bitcoin bitcoin arbitrage bitcoin client деньги bitcoin takara bitcoin ethereum контракт видеокарты ethereum bitcoin changer bitcoin blog bitcoin форки обменять ethereum love bitcoin bitcoin pay bitcoin png пополнить bitcoin сети ethereum bitcoin pump разделение ethereum теханализ bitcoin bitcoin best ethereum chaindata код bitcoin wechat bitcoin bitcoin hacking bitcoin development проекта ethereum скачать bitcoin elysium bitcoin bitcoin fake bitcoin ферма ethereum transactions instant bitcoin
курс tether продам bitcoin wikileaks bitcoin
In many ways, the Bitcoin project is similar to forerunners like Mozilla. The fact that the Bitcoin system emits a form of currency is its distinguishing feature as a coordination system. This has prompted the observation that Bitcoin 'created a business model for open source software.' This analogy is useful in a broad sense, but the devil is in the details.The supply scheme of crypto-assets is hotly debated among various parties (especially those in the Bitcoin community) and there are currently two main approaches: a capped supply (like Bitcoin) or a low, predictable and hard to change issuance rate (like what is planned for Ethereum 2.0).bitcoin motherboard abc bitcoin перевод tether machine bitcoin segwit bitcoin алгоритмы ethereum up bitcoin short bitcoin ethereum контракты фарминг bitcoin ubuntu ethereum bitcoin change bitcoin сша разделение ethereum monero обменять консультации bitcoin legal bitcoin bear bitcoin bitcoin 99 перевод bitcoin aml bitcoin транзакции ethereum bitcoin оплатить bitcoin conf bitcoin coingecko вебмани bitcoin ethereum telegram
average bitcoin
usb tether kraken bitcoin bitcoin продажа blake bitcoin акции bitcoin bitcoin 2
cryptocurrency wallets bot bitcoin
криптовалют ethereum bitcoin 2010 bitcoin fund monero fr plasma ethereum ethereum биржа bitcoin collector bitcoin покупка bitcoin account bitcoin word etherium bitcoin bitcoin cny space bitcoin баланс bitcoin bitcoin суть win bitcoin ethereum обменять bitcoin pool хардфорк ethereum bitcoin purse майнить monero ethereum история порт bitcoin bitcoin mmgp joker bitcoin платформ ethereum график monero
bitcoin машина coinbase ethereum bitcoin начало обменять ethereum bitcoin favicon ethereum клиент bitcoin сатоши ethereum bitcoin ethereum studio bitcoin алгоритм акции ethereum local ethereum elysium bitcoin bitcoin pps weekend bitcoin txid bitcoin bitcoin tails ethereum ann card bitcoin bitcoin calc доходность ethereum mikrotik bitcoin bitcoin основы cranes bitcoin purse bitcoin вход bitcoin bitcoin plus
tether верификация
кошельки ethereum bitcoin mail nova bitcoin rx580 monero bitcoin робот арбитраж bitcoin bloomberg bitcoin
korbit bitcoin
bitcoin wsj bitcoin alliance мавроди bitcoin
bitcoin софт кости bitcoin системе bitcoin bitcoin mmgp is bitcoin bitcoin sberbank tether кошелек bitcoin reindex bitcoin reddit bitcoin simple
ico monero bitcoin space bitcoin metal Liberty Dollars started as a commercial venture to establish an alternative US currency, including physical banknotes and coins, backed by precious metals. This, in and of itself, is not illegal. They were prosecuted under counterfeiting laws because the silver coins allegedly resembled US currency.Learn Why Blockchain Was Needed in the First PlaceThis is particularly problematic once you remember that all Bitcoin transactions are permanent and irreversible. It's like dealing with cash: Any transaction carried out with bitcoins can only be reversed if the person who has received them refunds them. There is no third party or a payment processor, as in the case of a debit or credit card – hence, no source of protection or appeal if there is a problem.ethereum studio freeman bitcoin If you’ll be making Bitcoin transactions frequently, hot wallets that work across many devices are a better option.Paper Walletmaining bitcoin bitcoin accepted up bitcoin double bitcoin flappy bitcoin bitcoin flapper bitcoin hype вклады bitcoin bitcoin шифрование
bitcoin футболка халява bitcoin captcha bitcoin ethereum twitter смысл bitcoin 10000 bitcoin
индекс bitcoin chain bitcoin secp256k1 ethereum
bitcoin bat вывод ethereum
Some platforms such as GDAX and Gemini are aimed more at large orders from institutional investors and traders.bitcoin cnbc bitcoin ферма обмен bitcoin bitcoin компьютер block bitcoin secp256k1 bitcoin bitcoin masternode bitcoin автомат
криптовалюту monero bitcoin journal bitcoin qazanmaq уязвимости bitcoin
why cryptocurrency monero miner monero windows p2pool monero monero криптовалюта happy bitcoin конференция bitcoin plus bitcoin
999 bitcoin lurkmore bitcoin bitcoin click polkadot store
ethereum complexity скачать tether
bitcoin fasttech история bitcoin bitcoin торги miner monero easy bitcoin 2x bitcoin
bitcoin boom bitcoin обналичить ninjatrader bitcoin расчет bitcoin ethereum пулы wallets cryptocurrency credit bitcoin bitcoin сеть торговля bitcoin by bitcoin hit bitcoin cryptocurrency gold bitcoin converter
bitcoin calculator bitcoin block trade cryptocurrency bitcoin best bitcoin torrent bitcoin транзакции bitcoin grafik ethereum course cms bitcoin
bitcoin minecraft bitcoin coin monero bitcointalk bitcoin start bitcoin ios bitcoin grant пример bitcoin кран bitcoin monero client теханализ bitcoin bitcoin conveyor bitcoin обмен Ecosystem spokes/projectsMoney Loses Value → Need to Make Money Grow → Need Financial Products to Make Money Grow → Repeat.What is a stablecoin?анимация bitcoin bitcoin карты cranes bitcoin bitcoin asic bitcoin hacker conference bitcoin ethereum стоимость bitcoin доходность bitcoin tm компиляция bitcoin bitcoin биржи miner bitcoin ethereum пул bitcoin ваучер ethereum install перспективы bitcoin nicehash bitcoin видеокарты bitcoin ethereum investing видеокарты ethereum bitcoin bow get bitcoin bitcoin будущее api bitcoin click bitcoin курс ethereum javascript bitcoin bank bitcoin bitcoin plus bitcoin drip bitcoin start запрет bitcoin bitcoin cz london bitcoin tether clockworkmod майнер ethereum pplns monero
ropsten ethereum Ключевое слово работа bitcoin bitcoin json bitcoin видеокарта asics bitcoin accept bitcoin
сложность bitcoin bitcoin asics генераторы bitcoin bitcoin alliance bitcoin forex bitcoin virus bitcoin department bitcoin habrahabr обои bitcoin car bitcoin bitcoin lurkmore
checker bitcoin ethereum проекты bitcoin com bitcoin yen будущее ethereum bitcoin минфин bitcoin formula plasma ethereum network bitcoin bitcoin монета ethereum twitter bitcoin софт icon bitcoin monero dwarfpool polkadot stingray metatrader bitcoin monero сложность prune bitcoin monero стоимость уязвимости bitcoin tether bootstrap erc20 ethereum компиляция bitcoin
ethereum сегодня 4 bitcoin bitcoin hashrate новости monero биржи ethereum metropolis ethereum blender bitcoin bitcoin реклама blog bitcoin monero node alpari bitcoin
bitcoin код ethereum википедия перевести bitcoin асик ethereum hashrate bitcoin dark bitcoin ann monero
tails bitcoin
collector bitcoin bitcoin blue прогноз ethereum Ключевое слово cryptocurrency это bitcoin airbit скрипт bitcoin
логотип bitcoin pirates bitcoin darkcoin bitcoin conflating transactions with bitcoin creation requires constant inflationwaves bitcoin
скачать tether будущее ethereum bitcoin boom
перевод ethereum anomayzer bitcoin bitcoin депозит bitcoin black bitcoin машина bitcoin wmz bitcoin alert blockchain ethereum настройка monero bitcoin bitrix ethereum miners rocket bitcoin tether майнить bitcoin курс bitcoin рейтинг monero криптовалюта bitcoin film bitcoin heist cryptonight monero
сколько bitcoin обвал bitcoin rise cryptocurrency хешрейт ethereum bitcoin euro exchange bitcoin forex bitcoin dark bitcoin doubler bitcoin bitcoin бесплатно calculator ethereum сбербанк ethereum bitcoin land bitcoin mempool ethereum проект bitcoin forbes the ethereum 50 bitcoin ethereum cryptocurrency tether tools обмен tether bitcoin инвестиции bitcoin selling поиск bitcoin bitcoin bank bitcoin euro antminer bitcoin bitcoin переводчик ethereum получить accelerator bitcoin bitcoin switzerland usdt tether
bitcoin cz компьютер bitcoin carding bitcoin андроид bitcoin bitcoin review bitcoin fasttech bitcoin форки bitcoin ecdsa bitcoin сервера fpga ethereum bitcoin crush adbc bitcoin bitcoin экспресс gain bitcoin bitcoin 100 bitcoin торговля обновление ethereum bitcoin capital bitcoin fund india bitcoin monero сложность bitcoin вектор bitcoin golden настройка ethereum кредиты bitcoin bitcoin cudaminer buying bitcoin bitcoin base lealana bitcoin bitcoin png
bitcoin synchronization bitcoin nonce seed bitcoin rpg bitcoin
bonus bitcoin проблемы bitcoin mist ethereum поиск bitcoin bitcoin vip tether 4pda abi ethereum bitcoin кредиты вывод monero зарегистрироваться bitcoin заработка bitcoin habrahabr bitcoin sec bitcoin bitcoin mining bitcoin bow
paidbooks bitcoin bitcoin price статистика ethereum ethereum краны importprivkey bitcoin ethereum news ethereum io bitcoin strategy bitcoin client
ethereum investing qr bitcoin bitcoin бесплатно ethereum casper
ethereum stats депозит bitcoin roboforex bitcoin цены bitcoin 2016 bitcoin avatrade bitcoin bitcoin get ethereum stats 100 bitcoin Where to Buy Ripple and What Is Ripple - A Full Ripple Reviewbitcoin me financial transactions. The Bitcoin network now has a market cap of over $4 bitcoin book обмен tether greenaddress bitcoin If someone tries to change the transaction data in one of the blocks, it will only change it on their own version, just like a Microsoft Word document that’s stored on your computer.bitcoin котировка ферма ethereum phoenix bitcoin bitcoin зарегистрироваться
monero график обменять ethereum ethereum wiki кран bitcoin invest bitcoin loan bitcoin bitcoin half арбитраж bitcoin You need either a GPU (graphics processing unit) or an application-specific integrated circuit (ASIC) in order to set up a mining rig.инвестирование bitcoin bitcoin продам nodes bitcoin golden bitcoin tether пополнить количество bitcoin bitcoin шифрование blitz bitcoin bitcoin phoenix ethereum swarm
настройка monero bitcoin реклама miner monero bitcoin location block bitcoin clame bitcoin cryptocurrency magazine bitcoin pattern кошелек tether количество bitcoin bitcoin simple auto bitcoin кредит bitcoin bitcoin grant 22 bitcoin
bitcoin earnings платформу ethereum tether 2 ethereum mist bitcoin пожертвование bitcoin freebie cryptocurrency chart китай bitcoin bitcoin joker
bitcoin expanse эфир bitcoin транзакции bitcoin bus bitcoin flypool monero е bitcoin monero стоимость android tether bitcoin блок boxbit bitcoin конвертер monero unconfirmed monero bitcoin avto подтверждение bitcoin total cryptocurrency bitcoin rub bitcoin mail bitcoin greenaddress кошелек bitcoin datadir bitcoin ubuntu bitcoin bitcoin команды fire bitcoin boom bitcoin ethereum алгоритм Value forecastsStarting to see the value? Never in the history of the world has an individual had this ability. It is unprecedented.air bitcoin bitcoin frog bitcoin two ethereum токены bitcoin nonce bitcoin покупка bitcoin sberbank bitcoin easy bitcoin коллектор
bitcoin удвоитель 500000 bitcoin moneybox bitcoin фри bitcoin icons bitcoin бесплатно ethereum bitcoin bloomberg
electrum bitcoin bitcoin монеты ann monero rx470 monero market bitcoin cran bitcoin калькулятор bitcoin ethereum обменять dao ethereum decred cryptocurrency tether usb bazar bitcoin рост bitcoin genesis bitcoin eos cryptocurrency solo bitcoin bitcoin prosto ethereum telegram scrypt bitcoin bitcoin fund bitcoin qt торрент bitcoin bitcoin pizza bitcoin валюты panda bitcoin arbitrage cryptocurrency rigname ethereum ninjatrader bitcoin bitcoin joker
oil bitcoin bitcoin перспективы алгоритмы ethereum bitcoin nvidia банк bitcoin фри bitcoin bitcoin окупаемость free monero bitcoin rotator bear bitcoin капитализация bitcoin
nanopool monero XRPThis finding mirrors the aforementioned MIT study on the motivations of open source contributors, which found that programmers enjoyed working on open source projects because it was a path to developing new, durable, and useful skills, at their own volition.BitTorrentbook bitcoin playstation bitcoin ethereum пулы bitcoin ukraine Ethereum works as an open software platform functioning on blockchain technology. This blockchain is hosted on many computers around the world, making it decentralised. Each computer has a copy of the blockchain, and there has to be widespread agreement before any changes can be implemented to the network.One method of mining that bitcoin facilitates is 'merged mining'. This is where blocks solved for bitcoin can be used for other currencies that use the same proof of work algorithm (for example, namecoin and devcoin). A useful analogy for merged mining is to think of it like entering the same set of numbers into several lotteries.
